Research Hub

Difficulty sustaining attention on low-interest tasks, impulsive responses, challenges with task initiation, hyper-focus on high-interest activities, working memory differences, difficulty with transitions.

ADHD is a neurodevelopmental condition characterised by executive function differences, not a deficit of willpower. Many students with ADHD demonstrate exceptional creativity and capacity for hyper-focus when intrinsically motivated.

• Chunk instructions: one step at a time, displayed visually
• Movement breaks built in, not as exceptions or rewards
• Choice in how to complete tasks increases intrinsic motivation
• Fidget tools during listening tasks reduce the need to self-regulate through movement
• Avoid calling on students unexpectedly. Give a warm heads-up: "In about a minute I will ask you what you think."

Deep interest in specific topics, preference for routine and predictability, sensory sensitivities, differences in social communication, need for explicit instruction in social expectations, high masking fatigue in social environments.

The neurodiversity movement has shifted understanding of autism from a deficit model to one that recognises difference. Autistic students often bring deep knowledge, intense focus and original thinking. The environment shapes how much of this is available.

• Post the lesson structure visibly at the start of every lesson
• Warn students in advance of transitions and changes to routine
• Make social expectations in collaborative tasks explicit and visible
• Allow alternative participation modes: written response instead of verbal, individual work option in group tasks
• Connect content to the student's areas of deep interest where possible

Difficulty with decoding and spelling, slow or effortful reading, challenges with written expression, strong oral language skills, excellent comprehension when text is read aloud, visual-spatial strengths.

Dyslexia is a specific learning difference in phonological processing. It is neurological in origin and has no connection to intelligence. Many people with dyslexia demonstrate exceptional strengths in visual-spatial reasoning, narrative thinking and pattern recognition.

• Read all written instructions aloud as well as displaying them
• Accept verbal responses, voice recordings or drawings as alternatives to written tasks
• Provide text-to-speech options and allow extra time for reading tasks
• Use dyslexia-friendly fonts and increased line spacing where possible
• Separate the assessment of content knowledge from the assessment of spelling and grammar

Avoidance of tasks or situations involving potential failure, physical complaints before high-demand activities, difficulty starting work, reluctance to attempt unfamiliar tasks, heightened response to perceived criticism, may appear withdrawn or "quiet".

Anxiety in school settings is increasingly prevalent and is neurologically distinct from "not trying". The threat response consumes the cognitive resources needed for learning. Research shows that perceived psychological safety is the most significant classroom variable for anxious students.

• Make the Low Floor genuinely low: tasks students can begin without fear of getting it wrong
• Avoid cold-calling. Offer pair-share before any whole-class sharing.
• Normalise mistakes explicitly: "Getting stuck is part of this. It means your brain is working."
• Create consistent, predictable structures. Surprise increases anxiety.
• Allow written or drawn responses as alternatives to verbal ones

Hypervigilance to teacher tone and facial expression, difficulty trusting adult intentions, responses that seem disproportionate to the trigger, challenges with emotional regulation, difficulty with transitions, survival responses (fight, flight, freeze, fawn) that look like behaviour issues.

Complex developmental trauma rewires the stress response system. Students who have experienced chronic early adversity may have a nervous system calibrated to threat detection in ways that make ordinary classroom environments challenging. The relationship with the teacher is often the primary healing environment.

• Consistency and predictability above all else. These students need to know what to expect from you.
• Avoid power struggles. Offer choices rather than ultimatums.
• Co-regulation: your calm is more powerful than any strategy. Slow your own breathing first.
• Repair relationship after difficult moments. Always come back.
• Assume behaviour is communication, not manipulation.

High intellectual capability coexisting with a learning difference (e.g. gifted + dyslexia, gifted + ADHD, gifted + autism). May produce uneven performance that confuses both the student and the teacher. Often under-identified because gifts mask challenges and vice versa.

Research shows that twice-exceptional students are at particular risk of underachievement and mental health difficulties because their needs are often unmet in both directions. Standard extension tasks may not engage their gifts, while standard support may not address their challenges.

• Identify and name the strengths explicitly. Do not wait for challenges to be addressed first.
• Provide genuine high ceiling options: open-ended, self-directed, with no visible ceiling
• Separate the scaffold from the content level: provide writing support while offering advanced conceptual content
• Avoid assumptions about what a student can do based on what they struggle with

Distress in noisy or busy environments, strong reactions to light touch, covering ears, avoiding certain textures or smells, difficulty concentrating when the environment is visually or auditorily busy, appearing anxious or overwhelmed for no obvious reason.

The nervous system is registering ordinary sensory input as intense or threatening. This is not a behavioural choice. The student's stress response is being activated by environmental inputs that others do not notice.

• Offer a quieter workspace or a study carrel for focused tasks
• Allow noise-reducing headphones or ear defenders during independent work
• Reduce visual clutter in the immediate learning area
• Warn students before loud or unexpected sounds (bell, video, announcement)
• Offer lightweight clothing options for school uniform where possible

Frequent movement, fidgeting, touching objects and people, making noise, chewing things, leaning on furniture or peers, difficulty sitting still, seeking out physical contact or rough play, appearing restless even after breaks.

The nervous system is not receiving enough sensory input to regulate itself. The student is seeking proprioceptive, vestibular or tactile input because their nervous system needs it to function well.

• Offer fidget tools, resistance bands under the desk, or wobble cushions
• Build in heavy work activities before focus tasks
• Give classroom jobs that involve movement and carrying
• Allow the student to stand during lessons or sit on the floor
• Schedule movement breaks intentionally rather than reacting to dysregulation

Slow, effortful or illegible handwriting, avoidance of writing tasks, fatigue during written work, difficulty with scissors or manipulative tools, inconsistent letter size and spacing, limited written output despite strong verbal ability.

Handwriting requires the integration of fine motor control, visual perception, proprioceptive feedback and postural stability. Difficulty in any of these areas can produce visible writing struggles that have no connection to cognitive ability.

• Offer typed responses, dictation, or oral alternatives as equivalent options
• Provide a writing slope or angled clipboard
• Allow pencil grips and thicker implements
• Warm up fine motor skills before writing tasks
• Separate content assessment from written production assessment

Difficulty following multi-step verbal instructions, limited vocabulary, trouble organising thoughts in writing or speech, appearing to understand more than they do, short or simple sentences, slow to respond, word-finding difficulties mid-sentence.

DLD affects approximately 7 to 10 percent of children and is one of the most common, and least recognised, conditions in schools. It is not related to intelligence and often goes unidentified because students develop effective compensatory strategies.

• Chunk instructions — one step at a time, written and spoken
• Pre-teach vocabulary before new topics, not during them
• Use sentence frames and word banks to scaffold responses
• Allow significant processing time before re-prompting
• Check comprehension by asking students to retell in their own words

Difficulty reading social cues, interrupting conversations, misunderstanding sarcasm or figurative language, literal interpretation of idioms, appearing blunt or rude without intent, struggling with turn-taking in discussion, misreading tone of voice or facial expression.

Pragmatic language — the social use of communication — involves implicit rules that most people learn without being taught. Students with social communication differences need these rules made explicit and taught directly, not assumed.

• Make social rules visible and explicit in writing
• Use social stories to pre-teach new social situations
• Avoid idioms without explanation
• Explicitly teach turn-taking structures for discussion
• Praise specific social communication behaviours when you observe them

Uses a communication device, picture board, sign system, or other AAC tool to communicate. May also use vocalisations, gesture and facial expression alongside their AAC. Communication may be slower than spoken language and requires patient waiting from communication partners.

AAC is a valid and effective communication system. The most significant factor in AAC success in classroom settings is the communication environment — how teachers and peers respond to and model AAC use matters more than the device itself.

• Always wait — 30 to 60 seconds is appropriate and worth it
• Respond to all communication attempts as equally valid
• Ensure device vocabulary includes current lesson content, in advance
• Never finish a sentence for an AAC user
• Model AAC use alongside your spoken language where possible